1) spiritual and practical
3) creative
4) cognitive
5) predictive
6) customized
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
4) think
5) produce offspring
social revolution, economic reform, social progress, social dynamics, fundamental transformations.
1) knowledge
2) game
3) labor
4) communication
5) activities
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
Enter the numbers in ascending order.
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
List of terms:
Part 2.
21. What two types of necessities of human existence are noted by the authors? What is the main contradiction, according to the authors, that modern man has faced?
27. One philosopher considered the criterion of true knowledge to be their clarity, self-evidence. Another philosopher considered sensations to be such a criterion. Based on the knowledge of the course, indicate the three criteria of truth accepted by modern science.
29. Choose one of the statements below, reveal its meaning in the form of a mini-essay, indicating, if necessary, different aspects of the problem posed by the author (the topic touched upon). When presenting your thoughts on the problem raised (marked topic), when arguing your point of view, use the knowledge gained during the study of the social science course, the relevant concepts, as well as the facts of social life and your own life experience. (Give at least two examples from various sources to support your argument.
29.1 | Philosophy | |
29.1. | Philosophy | |
29.3 |
Test work in social studies Grade 10 1 semester Option 1
Explanation.
The activity is divided into two parts: practical and spiritual (theoretical).
Answer: spiritual.
Knowledge , worldview , values , attitudes , beliefs .
Explanation.
Worldview is a generalized system of a person's views on the world and his place in it. The basis of the worldview is the knowledge accumulated by a person during his life. The structure of the worldview includes values, attitudes, beliefs.
Answer: outlook.
1) feeling
2) perception
3) hypothesis
4) presentation
5) practice
6) judgment
7) concept
Find two terms that “fall out” of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in response.
Explanation.
Hypothesis and practice are the methods and criteria of scientific knowledge. Everything else is a form of knowledge.
Answer: 35.
1) Public relations are regulated by legal and moral norms.
2) The majority of the population is employed in the service sector.
3) Extensive farming methods prevail.
4) Science-intensive, resource-saving technologies receive the greatest development.
5) There is a widespread introduction of computer technology in various areas of life.
6) Natural factors influence the development of society.
Explanation.
Post-industrial information is characterized by the following features:
1) knowledge, information, high technologies;
2) computerization, widespread use of machine technology;
3) transformation of the environment;
4) intensive way of development;
5) intellectual products (programs, inventions);
6) individualism;
7) declining role of religion;
8) the main thing is education, science.
Answer: 245.
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
Explanation.
Pre-industrial society (traditional) - the competition of man with nature. It is characterized by the predominant importance of agriculture, fishing, cattle breeding, mining and woodworking industries. About 2/3 of the able-bodied population is employed in these areas of economic activity. Manual labor dominates. The use of primitive technologies based on everyday experience passed down from generation to generation.
Industrial - the competition of man with the transformed nature. It is characterized by the development of the production of consumer goods, which is carried out through the widespread use of various kinds of equipment. Economic activity is dominated by centralism, gigantism, uniformity in work and life, Mass culture, low level of spiritual values, oppression of people, destruction of nature. The time of brilliant craftsmen who could invent a loom, a steam engine, a telephone, an airplane, etc. without fundamental special knowledge. Monotonous assembly line work.
Post-industrial - competition between people. It is characterized not only by the widespread use of the achievements of science and technology in all areas of human activity, but also by the purposeful improvement of technology itself on the basis of the development of fundamental sciences. Without the application of the achievements of the fundamental sciences, it would be impossible to create any nuclear reactor, no laser, no computer. Man is being replaced by automated systems. One person, with the help of modern technology armed with a computer, can produce the final product, and not in a standard (mass) version, but in an individual version in accordance with the consumer's order.
A) the class structure of society - agrarian.
B) the leading role of information in the life of society is post-industrial.
C) affirmation of the values of progress, personal success - industrial.
G) mass production consumer goods - industrial.
E) promotion of the service sector - post-industrial.
Answer: 13223.
1) In the work collective where the graduate of an economic university came, at first it was not easy for her, many issues differed significantly from university knowledge, but more experienced senior colleagues helped her to get up to speed with their advice.
2) For a young man, his social circle, friends and girlfriends are extremely important, sometimes you can discuss with them what you can’t discuss with either parents or teachers.
3) The young man has succeeded in the tourism business, having created a large company specializing in the field of extreme tourism, but now he is more concerned about the fame of a patron of young talents; he recently established a scholarship for young scientists.
4) Every last Saturday of the month, the professor dedicates a trip to the conservatory to chamber music concerts.
5) Each person needs to maintain the thermal balance of the body, so in winter we put on mittens, warm boots and jackets.
Explanation.
Needs: physiological (for the reproduction of the family, food, clothing, housing, rest), existential (for the safety of one’s existence, comfort, guarantees of employment), social needs (manifested in a person’s desire to communicate, affection, caring for another person, attention to oneself) , prestigious (in self-respect, respect from others, recognition, success), spiritual (in self-actualization, self-expression, creativity).
1) At first, it was not easy for her in the work team where the graduate of an economic university came, many issues differed significantly from university knowledge, but more experienced senior colleagues helped her with their advice to get up to speed - yes, that's right.
2) For a young man, his social circle, friends and girlfriends are extremely important, sometimes you can discuss with them what you can’t discuss with either parents or teachers - yes, that’s right.
3) The young man has succeeded in the tourism business, having created a large company specializing in the field of extreme tourism, but now he is more concerned about the fame of a patron of young talents; recently he established a scholarship for young scientists - no, that's not true.
4) Every last Saturday of the month, the professor dedicates a trip to the conservatory to chamber music concerts - no, that's not true.
5) Each person needs to maintain the thermal balance of the body, so in winter we put on mittens, warm boots and jackets - no, that's not true.
Answer: 12.
1) spiritual and practical
2) socially transformative
3) creative
4) cognitive
5) predictive
6) customized
Explanation.
1) spiritual and practical - yes, that's right.
2) socially transformative - yes, that's right.
3) creative - yes, that's right.
4) cognitive - no, incorrect, not present here.
5) prognostic - no, incorrect, not present here.
6) individual - no, incorrect, not present here.
Answer: 123.
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
Explanation.
Activity is a process of a person's active attitude to reality, during which the subject achieves the goals set earlier, the satisfaction of various needs and the development of social experience.
The structure of activity: the subject is the one who carries out the activity (a person, a group of people, an organization, a state body); an object is what it is aimed at (natural materials, various objects, spheres or areas of people's lives); motives - those internal forces that are associated with the needs of the individual and encourage her to a certain activity; goals - the most significant objects, phenomena, tasks and objects for a person, the achievement and possession of which constitute the essence of his activity (the goal of an activity is an ideal representation of its future result); methods and techniques (actions) are relatively complete elements of activity aimed at achieving intermediate goals subordinate to a common motive.
A) problem solving is a means to an end.
B) teacher consultation is a means to an end.
C) an eleventh grader is a subject.
D) getting a high score on the exam is the goal.
E) textbooks are a means to an end.
Answer: 33123.
1) transform the environment
2) see the purpose of their actions
3) adapt to natural conditions
4) think
5) produce offspring
6) alternate periods of activity and rest
Explanation.
The ability to think and act practically have a social nature.
Answer: 124.
social revolution, economic reform, social progress, social dynamics, fundamental transformations.
Explanation.
Social dynamics is social change, movement, development.
A social revolution is a qualitative revolution in the entire social structure of society.
Economic reform is a restructuring that affects the economic sphere.
Social progress is development, which is characterized by a transition from the lower to the higher, from the simple to the more complex, the movement to the more perfect.
Answer: social dynamics.
1) Human activity has a creative and transformative character.
2) Human activity is entirely determined by conditioned reflexes.
3) Unlike the behavior of animals, human activity is focused on meeting the needs that are in force at a given time.
4) Human activity is caused by social needs.
5) Human activity is of a volitional and conscious nature.
Explanation.
Activity is a specifically human activity, regulated by consciousness, generated by needs and aimed at the knowledge and transformation of the external world and the person himself.
The main feature of activity is that its content is not entirely determined by the need that gave rise to it. The need as a motive (inducement) gives impetus to activity, but the very forms and content of activity are determined by social goals, requirements and experience.
There are three main types of activity: play, learning and work. The purpose of the game is the “activity” itself, and not its results. Human activity, which has as its goal the acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities, is called learning. Labor is an activity whose purpose is the production of socially necessary products.
1) Human activity is creative and transformative - yes, that's right.
2) Human activity is entirely determined by conditioned reflexes - no, wrong, not entirely, it is also purposeful.
3) Unlike animal behavior, human activity is focused on meeting the needs that are in effect at a given time - no, it is not true, animal behavior is also aimed at what is happening at a given time.
4) Human activity is caused by social needs - yes, that's right.
5) Human activity is of a volitional and conscious nature - yes, that's right.
Answer: 145.
1) knowledge
2) game
3) labor
4) communication
5) activities
Explanation.
All concepts presented are activities.
Answer: 5.
1) Society is part of nature.
2) Nature completely determines the development of society.
3) Modern society is characterized by a class structure.
4) The totality of all the peoples inhabiting our planet is a society.
5) Society can be called a certain stage in the historical development of mankind.
Explanation.
1) Society is part of nature - no, not true, society is a detached part of the natural world.
2) Nature completely determines the development of society - no, it is not true.
3) Modern society is characterized by a class structure - no, it is not true.
4) The totality of all the peoples inhabiting our planet is a society - yes, that's right.
5) Society can be called a certain stage in the historical development of mankind - yes, that's right.
Answer: 45.
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
Explanation.
Methods of scientific knowledge are divided into empirical - based on sensory knowledge and theoretical - based on rational knowledge, with the help of concepts, judgments and conclusions. A hypothesis is a scientifically based assumption about the causes or regular connections of any phenomena or events of nature, society, thinking.
A) formulation of scientific laws - theoretical.
B) explanation of the essence of the studied phenomena - theoretical.
B) hypotheses - theoretical.
D) observation of the studied phenomena - empirical.
E) carrying out quantitative measurements - empirical.
Answer: 22211.
Enter the numbers in ascending order.
1) With the help of sensory knowledge, we can judge the external properties individual items and phenomena.
2) Sensation is one of the forms of sensory knowledge.
3) One of the forms of sensory cognition is the formation of a holistic image of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses.
4) At the stage of sensory cognition, the key task is to generalize and analyze information.
5) The mental connection of several judgments and the isolation of a new judgment from them is the result of sensory cognition.
Explanation.
Sensory knowledge - through the senses. Forms: sensation (reflection of individual features of objects through the senses), perception (a holistic image of the object is given through all the senses), representation (sensory image of the object from memory).
1) With the help of sensory knowledge, we can judge the external properties of individual objects and phenomena - yes, that's right.
2) Sensation is one of the forms of sensory knowledge - yes, that's right.
3) One of the forms of sensory cognition is the formation of a holistic image of objects and phenomena with their direct impact on the senses - yes, that's right.
4) At the stage of sensory cognition, the key task is to generalize and analyze information - no, it's not true.
5) The mental connection of several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them is the result of a sensual one - no, it is not true.
Answer: 123.
Enter the numbers in ascending order.
1) The formational approach to the study of society was most fully formulated by K. Marx and F. Engels.
2) Within the framework of the formational approach, the leading role in the development of society is assigned to the ideological and cultural factor.
3) The formational approach describes the development of society as a movement from a lower to a higher level.
4) The formational approach assumes the universal nature of the laws of social development.
5) The formational approach emphasizes the uniqueness and diversity of various geographical and historical forms of society.
Explanation.
Formative approach - history is seen as a single progressive development, in which stages common to all peoples are distinguished. Formulated by Marx and Engels.
2) Within the framework of the formational approach, the leading role in the development of society is assigned to the ideological and cultural factor - no, it is not true.
3) The formational approach describes the development of society as a movement from a lower to a higher level - yes, that's right.
4) The formational approach assumes the universal nature of the laws of social development - yes, that's right.
5) The formational approach emphasizes the uniqueness and diversity of various geographical and historical forms of society - no, that's not true.
Answer: 134.
2) is predominantly commercial in nature
3) does not require special training for its perception
4) appeared before other forms of culture
5) designed for a narrow circle of connoisseurs
Explanation.
It is designed for a narrow circle of connoisseurs - it does not fit, because the people are not a narrow circle of society. Is predominantly commercial in nature - at birth folk culture the concept of "commercial" did not even exist.
Answer: 134.
Write down the numbers in response, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:
Explanation.
Levels of scientific knowledge: empirical (based on the description of objects and phenomena, observation and experiment) and theoretical (based on laws, principles, scientific theories that reveal the essence of cognitive processes, laws that cannot be observed).
A) classification - theoretical.
B) experiment - empirical.
C) observation - empirical.
D) formalization - theoretical.
E) description - empirical.
Answer: 12212.
1) developed an ecosystem model
2) made observations in the field
3) studied the literature on the research problem
4) used the school laboratory to conduct experiments
5) put forward a working hypothesis before the start of the study, which was confirmed
6) described a number of cases that had not previously appeared in the literature
Explanation.
Empirical methods rely on the senses.
1) developed an ecosystem model - no, that's not true.
2) conducted observations in the field - yes, that's right.
3) studied the literature on the research problem - no, it is not true.
4) used the school laboratory for experiments - yes, that's right.
5) put forward a working hypothesis before the start of the study, which was confirmed - no, it is not true.
6) described a number of cases that had not previously appeared in the literature - yes, that's right.
Answer: 246.
“The proportion of people who become “knowledge workers” is steadily increasing. ________________________(A) and knowledge are both the source material and the product of their activity. But it's not just that everything more people are engaged in ________________________ (B): the intellectual content of any labor is growing, whether in agriculture, industry, institutions or in _____________________ (C). The modern doctor, armed with antibiotics, magnetic resonance imaging and _______________________ (G), brings to his work much more knowledge than his predecessors before the Second World War, whose main medicines were hot water and attentive attitude to the sick. The heroic image of ____________________ (D) - naked to the waist, with reflections of hellish flame from a blast furnace on his torso - is a thing of the past, just as a peasant disappeared from the historical arena before him. The modern worker works rather in an air-conditioned control room, watching the rows of _____________________(E).”
The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word (phrase) can only be used once. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.
List of terms:
The table below lists the letters that represent the missing words. Write in the table under each letter the number of the word you have chosen.
Explanation.
Based on the context, the sequence 134897 is the only correct answer. Indirect clues are the gender and number of words.
Answer: 1, 3, 4, 8, 9, 7.
Part 2.
The main contradiction that modern man has encountered is a sharp discrepancy between the biological and social capabilities of man and the civilizational opportunities that the world, built according to the latest achievements of science and technology, gives him, due to which the problem arises: what state is the world heading towards? The first option: it could be a more developed, economically, politically, morally and otherwise progressive world. But there may be another option: a world that is degrading in some of these relationships or in all of them at once. But so far only one thing is clear: mankind ... received by the beginning of the XXI century. very powerful means of influencing both nature and society ...
Man as a socio-biological being functions at the junction of two opposite types of needs. Needs of the first type are a set of biological, social and other needs. Among them, the leading ones are the needs coming from the human body. A person needs to eat, drink, rest, some minimum level of comfort, some kind of personal social circle, etc. is needed. All this, in a certain context, can serve as the basis for the selfish strategies of human existence. Thus, the well-being of one specific person, one family, some circle of people connected by blood or business ties, etc. can be placed at the center of such strategies.
The needs of the second type are associated with the socio-spiritual content of human consciousness and, first of all, with moral and ethical norms, among which the human conscience comes to the fore, understood by different philosophical schools in different ways. But all these schools agree on one thing: it is conscience that is an integral component of such experiences as compassion, altruism, heroism, and so on. Conscience is also one of the components of spirituality...
The situation of modern life is such that ... lack of spirituality begins to permeate the entire society, and one of its most dangerous consequences is a decrease in the sense of responsibility of the individual. Such a decrease in the responsibility of the individual can be carried out in a certain “corridor” - from inattention to the object of communication or control, etc. to the complete disregard of his needs and interests. If, on the other hand, an unspiritual person finds himself at vital points of the state, economic, political, etc. mechanism, then its inadequate actions can lead to various kinds of cataclysms.
(T.D. Sterledev, R.K. Sterledev)
C1. What two types of necessities of human existence are noted by the authors? What is the main contradiction, according to the authors, that modern man has faced?
Points |
|
1) two types of needs (the answer to the first question):
2) contradiction (the answer to the second question): a sharp discrepancy between the biological and social capabilities of man and the civilizational opportunities that the world, built according to the latest achievements of science and technology, gives him. Elements of the answer can be given in other formulations that are close in meaning. | |
Two types of necessity and a contradiction are correctly pointed out. | |
Only one type of necessity and a contradiction are correctly indicated. OR Only two types of needs are correct | |
Only one type of need is correctly identified. OR Only the contradiction is correct. OR Answer is wrong | |
Maximum score |
(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1) answer to the question: one of the most dangerous consequences lack of spirituality is a decrease in the sense of responsibility of the individual; (The answer to the question can be given in a different formulation, close in meaning.) 2) two manifestations of the spirituality of the individual, let's say: Interest in works of art, literature; Understanding the meaning of life as a desire for self-improvement, and not for the possession of exclusively material goods. (Other manifestations may be given.) | |
The correct answer to the question is given, two manifestations are given | |
The correct answer to the question is given, one manifestation is given. OR Only two manifestations are given | |
Only the correct answer is given. OR Only one manifestation is given. OR Answer is wrong | |
Maximum score |
C3. The authors argue that humanity received by the beginning of the XXI century. very powerful means of influencing nature and society. Name any one means of influencing nature and one any means of influencing society, illustrate with examples the effect of each of these means.
(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
In the correct answer, the means of influence should be named and appropriate examples should be given:
Other means of influence can be named, other examples given | |
The means of influence on nature and society are correctly named, the action of each of them is illustrated with examples. | |
The means of influence on nature and (or) society are correctly named, the action of one means is illustrated by an example (s) | |
Only the means of influencing nature and society are correctly named. OR Only examples of impact on nature and society are given | |
Only the means(s) of influencing nature or society are correctly named. OR Only example(s) of impact on nature or society is given. OR Reasoning of a general nature that does not meet the requirements of the task is given. OR Answer is wrong | |
Maximum score |
C4. The authors offered two answers to the question: what state is the world going to. Which of these answers seems more reasonable to you? Using social science knowledge, give three reasons to support your opinion.
(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1) answer to the question: a more developed, progressive world OR a degrading world; 2) arguments in support of: in the case of choosing the first answer to the question, it can be said that:
in the case of choosing the second option for answering the question, it can be said that:
Other arguments may be given in support of the chosen answer to the question. | |
An answer option is indicated, and three arguments are given. | |
An answer is given and two arguments are given. | |
An answer is given and one argument is given. | |
Only one answer is given. OR An answer option is not specified, regardless of the presence of other answer elements. OR Reasoning of a general nature is given that does not correspond to | |
Maximum score |
25. What meaning do social scientists invest in the concept of "need"? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences: one sentence containing information about the types of needs, and one sentence specifying information about any of these types.
(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1. the meaning of the concept, for example: A person’s need for what constitutes necessary condition its existence; (Another definition or explanation of the meaning of the concept that is close in meaning may be given.) 2. one sentence with information about the types of needs, based on knowledge of the course, for example: Distinguish between biological, social and spiritual needs; (Another proposal may be made containing information on two or more types of needs.) 3. one sentence specifying information about any type of needs, for example: Spiritual needs include the need to acquire new knowledge, artistic creativity, religious faith, etc. (Another proposal could be made specifying information about any kind of need.) Proposals must be formulated correctly, not contain elements that distort the meaning of the concept and / or its aspects. Proposals containing essential errors are not counted in the assessment. |
26. Scientific knowledge differs from other types of knowledge of the world. Name three features of scientific knowledge and illustrate each of them with an example.
(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
In a correct answer, the following features can be named and illustrated by examples: 1) focus on obtaining true knowledge (for example, a sociologist sets the goal of studying the social life of people); 2) the use of a special language (for example, the terms “social culture”, “social stratification” are used to characterize society); 3) the use of special methods and means (for example, a sociologist used survey and observation methods when conducting a sociological survey). Other examples may be given, other features named and illustrated. | |
Three features correctly named and illustrated | |
Two or three features are correctly named, two of which are illustrated by an example. | |
One to three features correctly named, one of which illustrated with an example. OR Only three features named | |
Only one or two features are correctly named. OR Only one to three examples are given. OR Reasoning of a general nature that does not meet the requirements of the task is given. OR Answer is wrong | |
Maximum score |
27. One philosopher considered the criterion of true knowledge to be its clarity, self-evidence. Another philosopher considered sensations to be such a criterion. Based on the knowledge of the course, indicate the three criteria of truth accepted by modern science.
(Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
Criteria can be given in the correct answer: 1) social practice (one or another type of knowledge has as a criterion of truth the form of practice corresponding to it: everyday practice, observation, experiment, etc.); 2) formal-logical criterion (used in those conditions when it is not possible to rely on practice; for example, the identification of logical contradictions in mathematical reasoning); 3) consistency with the knowledge, the truth of which is established. Other criteria of truth can be given | |
Three criteria are given | |
There are two criteria | |
One criterion given | 1 |
OR Reasoning of a general nature that does not meet the requirements of the task is given. Wrong answer | 0 |
Maximum score | 3 |
28. You are instructed to prepare a detailed answer on the topic "Scientific knowledge as one of the types of knowledge." Make a plan according to which you will cover this topic. The plan must contain at least three points, of which two or more are detailed in sub-points.
Correct Answer Content and Grading Instructions (Other formulations of the answer are allowed that do not distort its meaning) | Points |
When analyzing the response, the following is taken into account:
The wording of the points of the plan, which are abstract-formal in nature and do not reflect the specifics of the topic, are not counted in the assessment. | |
One of the options for the disclosure plan for this topic 1. Cognition as an activity. 2. Types of knowledge: a) scientific; b) mythological; c) artistic, etc. 3. Features of scientific knowledge: a) striving for objectivity; b) rational validity; c) systematic; d) verifiability, etc. 4. Levels of scientific knowledge: a) empirical knowledge; b) theoretical knowledge. 5. Methods of scientific knowledge. 6. Truth as a result of scientific knowledge. A different number and (or) other correct wording of points and sub-points of the plan are possible. They can be presented in nominal, interrogative or mixed forms. The absence of paragraphs 2, 3 and 4/5 of the plan in this or similar wording will not allow revealing the content of this topic on the merits | |
The wording of the points of the plan is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the topic on the merits (the provisions ofat least two of the items listed above). The structure of the answer corresponds to a plan of a complex type (contains at least three points, two of which are detailed in subparagraphs) | 3 |
The wording of the points of the plan is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the topic on the merits (the provisions of at least two of the points of the plan noted above are reflected). The plan includes at least three points, one of which is detailed in subparagraphs. OR The wording of the points of the plan is correct and allows you to reveal the content of the topic (the provisions of the two points of the plan noted above are reflected). The plan includes two points, each of which is detailed in sub-points. | 2 |
The wording of the points of the plan is correct and allows revealing the content of the specified topic (the provisions of at least two of the points of the plan noted above are reflected). The plan is simple in its structure and contains at least three points. OR In plan along with correct wordingthere are erroneous positions. But in general, the plan allows you to reveal the content of the topic on the merits (the provisions of at least two of the points of the plan noted above are reflected), one or two points are detailed in subparagraphs | 1 |
The structure and (or) content plan does not cover the specified topic (including a set of abstract formulations that do not reflect the specifics of the content of this topic). OR The plan is simple in its structure and contains one or two points | 0 |
Maximum score | 3 |
29.1 | Philosophy | “The joint harmonious development of Nature and Society is the central problem of modern life. And the development of a joint strategy of mankind, aimed at ensuring this harmony, will have to take the most important place in the collective efforts of all countries of the globe. (N.N. Moiseev) |
29.1. | Philosophy | “If we want to go forward, then one foot must remain in place while the other takes the next step. This is the first law of all progress...” (J. Eötvös) |
29.3 | Sociology, social psychology | “In the matter of education, the process of self-development should be given the widest place.” (G. Spencer) |
Slavery has historically evolved. There are two forms of it: patriarchal and classical. At a mature stage, slavery turns into slavery. When people talk about slavery as a historical type of stratification, they mean its highest stage. Slavery is the only form of social relations in history when one a person is the property of another and when the lower stratum is deprived of all rights and freedoms.
caste system not as ancient as the slave, and less common. If almost all countries went through slavery, of course, to varying degrees, then castes were found only in India and partly in Africa. India is a classic example of a caste society. It arose on the ruins of the slaveholding in the first centuries of the new era.
Castoy called a social group (stratum), membership in which a person owes solely to his birth. A person cannot move from his caste to another during his lifetime. To do this, he needs to be born again. The caste position is fixed by the Hindu religion (now it is clear why castes are not widespread). According to its canons, people live more than one life. Each person falls into the appropriate caste, depending on what his behavior was in a previous life. If bad, then after the next birth, he should fall into a lower caste and vice versa.
In India 4 main castes: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants), Shudras (workers and peasants). At the same time, there is about 5 thousand non-core cast and semi-cast. stand out untouchables. They are not included in any caste and occupy the lowest position.
In the course of industrialization, castes are replaced by classes. The Indian city is becoming more and more class-based, while the village, in which 7/10 of the population lives, remains caste-based.
Estates precede classes and characterize the feudal societies that existed in Europe from the 4th to the 14th centuries.
estate — social group with enforced by custom or legal law and hereditary rights and obligations.
The estate system, which includes several strata, is characterized by a hierarchy, expressed in the inequality of position and privileges. Europe was a classic example of a class organization, where at the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. the structure of society was divided into upper classes (nobility and clergy) and an unprivileged third estate (artisans, merchants, peasants). In the X-XIII centuries. There were three main estates: the clergy, the nobility and the peasantry.
In Russia from the second half of the seventeenth century. approved class division into nobility, clergy, merchants, peasantry and philistinism(middle urban strata). Estates were based on landed property.
The rights and obligations of each estate were determined by legal law and consecrated by religious doctrine. Membership in the estate was inherited. Social barriers between the estates were quite rigid, so social mobility existed not so much between as within the estates.
Each estate included many layers, ranks, levels, professions, ranks. So, only nobles could engage in public service. The aristocracy was considered a military estate (chivalry).
The higher in the social hierarchy an estate stood, the higher was its status. In contrast to the castes, inter-class marriages were quite allowed. Sometimes individual mobility was allowed. A simple person could become a knight by purchasing a special permit from the ruler. But the term "estate" is eventually replaced by a new concept of "class", which expresses the socio-economic status of people who are able to change their status.
Class is understood in two senses: broad and narrow.
V broad meaning under class understand a large social group of people who own or do not own the means of production, occupying a certain place in the system of social division of labor and characterized by a specific way of earning income.
Since private property arises during the period of the birth of the state, it is believed that already in the Ancient East and in ancient Greece there were two opposite classes: slaves and slave owners. Feudalism and capitalism are no exception. Here, too, antagonistic classes existed: the exploiters and the exploited. This is the point of view of K. Marx, which is still adhered to today. Another thing is that with the maturation, the complication of the versatility of the social organism, it became necessary to isolate in society not one or two classes, but many social strata, called strata in the West. And correspondingly stratification of society - its stratification (the appearance of many elements in the structure of society).
The term " stratification" comes from the Latin stratum - layer. Thus, in the etymology of the word, the task is not just to identify group diversity, but to determine vertical sequence of the position of social strata, layers in society, their hierarchy. For various authors, the concept of "stratum" is often replaced by other keywords: "class", "estate". Using all these terms below, we will invest in them a single content and understand a stratum as a large group of people who differ in their position in the social hierarchy of society.
Sociologists agree that basis of stratification structure (social structure of society) - natural and social inequality of people. However, the ways in which inequality is organized are different. What are the grounds that would determine the shape vertical structure of society?
K. Marx introduced the only basis for the vertical consideration of the structure of society - possession of property. Therefore, his social structure of society was reduced in fact to two levels: class of owners(slave owners, feudal lords, bourgeoisie) and Class, dispossessed of the means of production(slaves, proletarians) or having very limited property rights (peasants). Attempts to present intelligentsia, some others social groups as intermediate layers left the impression of ill-conceived general scheme of the social hierarchy of the population. The narrowness of this approach became apparent already at the end of the 19th century.
That is why M. Weber expands the number of criteria that determine belonging to one or another stratum. In addition to the economic (attitude to property and income level), he introduces criteria such as social prestige and belonging to certain political circles (parties). Prestige was understood as the acquisition by an individual from birth or due to personal qualities of such a social status that allowed him to take a certain place in the social hierarchy.
Status Role in the hierarchical structure of society determined such an important feature of social life as its normative-value regulation. Thanks to the latter, only those whose status corresponds to the ideas rooted in the mass consciousness about the significance of his title, profession, as well as the norms and laws functioning in society.
So, society reproduces, organizes inequality on several grounds: by the level of wealth and income, by the level of social prestige, by the level of possession political power, by level of education, as well as by some others. Apparently, it can be argued that these types of hierarchy are significant for society, since they allow regulating the reproduction of social ties, as well as directing personal aspirations and ambitions of people towards acquiring socially significant statuses.
What are the mechanisms supporting the hierarchical structure of society? For maintaining social hierarchy in society, a simple solution was initially found: one born in a slave family should remain a slave, in a nobleman's family - a representative of the upper class. The entire system of social statuses (law, army, court and church) followed the observance of the rules of the class organization of the hierarchical structure of society.
Sustainability such a hierarchical system could supported only by force: either by force of arms, the possession of which was the exclusive right of the higher strata; or the power of religion, which had exceptional opportunities to influence the minds of people; or by force of the respective laws, regulations, customs, on the observance of which all power was aimed state apparatus.
The hierarchical system of modern society is devoid of this rigidity. Formally, all citizens have equal rights, including the right to occupy any place in the social space, to rise to the highest floors of the social ladder or to be in the lower echelons. The sharply increased social mobility, however, did not lead to the erosion of the hierarchical system. Society still maintains and protects its hierarchy (structure).
It has been observed that the profile of the vertical section of society is not constant. K. Marx at one time suggested that its configuration would gradually change due to concentration of wealth in the hands of a few significant impoverishment of the bulk population. The result of this trend will be the emergence of serious tension between the upper and lower layers of the social hierarchy, which is inevitable will result in a struggle for the redistribution of national income.
P. Sorokin, while rejecting the thesis of K. Marx about the absolute impoverishment of the masses under capitalism, nevertheless was also inclined to believe that the upper part of the social pyramid tends to rise above the rest. But this growth of wealth and power is not unlimited. In his opinion, there is a saturation point beyond which society cannot move without the risk of a major catastrophe. As this point is approached, processes of containment of the harmful trend begin in society: either reforms are carried out to redistribute wealth through the taxation system, or deep revolutionary processes begin, in which broad social strata are involved.
Society stability associated with the profile of social stratification (the structure of society). Excessive stretching of the latter is fraught with serious social cataclysms, uprisings, riots, bringing chaos, violence, hindering the development of society, putting it on the brink of collapse. Thickening of the stratification profile primarily due to the truncation of the top of the cone - a phenomenon that is repeated in the history of all societies. It is important that it be carried out not through uncontrolled spontaneous processes, but through a consciously pursued state policy.
The described process also has a downside, noticed by P. Sorokin. Compaction of the stratification profile must not be excessive, nullifying the very principle of social hierarchy. Inequality is not only an objective reality of social life, but also an important source of social development. The equation in income, in relations to property, power deprives individuals important internal stimulus to action, self-realization, self-affirmation, and society- the only energy source of development.
The idea expressed by G. Simmel that stability of the hierarchical structure of society depends on t specific gravity and the role of the middle layer, or class. Occupying an intermediate position, the middle class performs a kind of connecting role between the two poles of the social hierarchy, reducing their confrontation. The more quantitatively the middle class, the more chances it has to influence the policy of the state, the process of formation of the fundamental values of society, the worldview of citizens, while avoiding the extremes inherent in opposing forces.
Availability powerful middle layer in the social hierarchy of many modern countries allows them to remain stable, despite occasional rising tensions among the poorest. This tension is extinguished not so much by the power of the repressive apparatus, how neutral position of the majority, generally satisfied with his position, confident in the future, feeling his strength and authority. In all developed countries, despite their cultural and geographical differences, the share of the middle class is approximately the same 55-60%. On the social ladder, it is placed between the elite (the top) and the workers or the social bottom. The increase in its role in society is explained by quite objective reasons. In developed countries in the XX century. there is a reduction in manual labor and an expansion of mental labor both in industry and in agriculture. Consequently, the number of workers and peasants is declining; the latter make up only 5% in the USA. But these are not traditional peasants, but independent and prosperous farmers. The list of new professions is enriched not at the expense of low-skilled ones, as before, but at the expense of highly qualified, knowledge-intensive specialties associated with progressive technologies. Their representatives automatically fall into the middle class. Between 1950 and 2000, American family income doubled. The purchasing power of the population has increased, it is necessary to work less to buy the same thing. Leisure has expanded, more time is left for entertainment, tourism, entertainment. The labor society is becoming a thing of the past, it is being replaced by a society of leisure.
Middle class plays special role in society, figuratively it can be likened to the function spine in the human body, thanks to which it maintains balance and stability. The middle class includes, as a rule, those who have economic independence (i.e., are the owner of an enterprise) or a pronounced professional orientation. And these are precisely those functions that are not only highly valued by society, but also highly rewarded. Scholars, priests, doctors, lawyers, middle managers, bankers, and entrepreneurs form the social backbone of society. Where there is no middle class or it has not yet formed, society is unstable.
All of the features listed (and others) make middle class to a certain extent self-sufficient and relatively independent part of the population.
Mobility(fr. mobile) - mobility. We are interested in social(public) mobility — the process of change by the subject public life their social status moving him up the career ladder.
The term "social mobility" was introduced into sociology
P. A. Sorokin, who considered social mobility as any change in social status. In modern sociology, the theory of social mobility is widely used to study the social structure of society.
Intergenerational mobility implies an increase or decrease in the social status of children in relation to the position occupied by their parents. Previously, this was not possible in all societies. Intergenerational mobility refers to long-term social processes.
Intragenerational social mobility implies a change in the status of the individual himself during his life. This does not affect the position of his parents. This process is also called a career (a specialist improves his qualifications, moves to a new, more prestigious position). Sometimes this process is accompanied by a change in the sphere of work from the physical to the intellectual.
Studying the structure of social mobility, the researchers came to the conclusion that it is influenced by factors such as gender, age, population density, birth rate in a particular region. Men are also more mobile;
In modern in a developing society, vertical movements are not group, a individual character. Certain personalities rise able to overcome the attraction of their socio-cultural environment. This is not easy, although a worker can, in principle, rise to the rank of minister. (The experience of the USSR is especially indicative: M. S. Gorbachev, B. N. Yeltsin, V. V. Putin).
It is unlikely that there is a society whose strata would not let individual units into themselves. In today's society, vertical movement is possible. However, this transition always complicated! If mobility were free, then there would be no social strata in society, P. A. Sorokin believed. It would look like a building without a ceiling or walls.
At the same time, all societies are stratified. They have a certain "sieve" that sifts through individuals and allows some to rise up, leaving others in the lower layers. The role of the sieve perform social institutions, regulating the movement along the vertical, and the uniqueness of the culture, the way of life of each layer, testing each nominee for strength, for compliance with the norms of the stratum to which he moves.
So, education system provides not only the primary socialization of the individual, but also fulfills the role a kind of elevator which allows the most capable climb up.
Political parties form the political elite, the institution of property strengthens the class of owners, the institution of marriage allows one to rise even in the absence of intellectual abilities. However, it is not enough to go up. Necessary gain a foothold in a stratum i.e. accept her way of life and fit in in her sociocultural Wednesday, accept norms, principles.
This process difficult, painful, as it requires great mental stress and is often fraught with nervous breakdowns. A person can forever remain an outcast where he aspires or got by the will of fate.
If social institutions are “social elevators”, then the sociocultural shell that envelops each stratum acts as a filter that exercises a kind of control. The filter may not let through an individual striving to the top, and then breaking out of the bottom will be doomed to be an outcast. Having risen to a higher level, he will remain behind the door leading to the stratum itself, which is fraught with neuropsychic breakdowns.
A similar picture can emerge when moving down. Having lost the right, secured by capital, to live in upper layers, the person is not capable open Door to another stratum with a different socioculture and from here - conflict.
Finding a person, as it were, between two structures called in sociology marginality.
Marginal is an individual lost its former social status and turned out incapable adapt to the new sociocultural environment.
Adaptation to new conditions is often associated with a radical restructuring of life orientations. In addition, the new social environment itself has a kind of filters that select one's own and reject others. It happens that a person, having lost his socio-cultural environment, cannot adapt to a new environment. Then he seems to get stuck between two social strata, between two cultures. For example, a wealthy former small entrepreneur is trying to get into the higher strata of society. He seems to be emerging from his old environment, but he is also a stranger to the new social environment - "a tradesman in the nobility." Another example: a former scientific worker, forced to earn a living as a cart driver or small business, is weighed down by his new position; for him the new environment is alien. Often he becomes the object of ridicule and humiliation on the part of less educated, but more adapted to the conditions of their environment, "colleagues".
Marginality is a socio-psychological concept. This is not only a certain intermediate position of the individual in the social structure, but also his own self-perception, self-perception. If a homeless person feels comfortable in his social environment, then he is not marginalized. The marginal is the one who believes that his current position is temporary or accidental. It is especially difficult for people who are forced to change their type of activity, profession, socio-cultural environment, place of residence, etc., experiencing their marginality, for example, refugees.
It is necessary to distinguish between marginality as an integral part of natural social mobility and forced marginality that arose in a crisis society, which becomes a tragedy for large social groups. Natural marginality is not of a massive and long-term nature and does not pose a threat to the stable development of society. Forced mass marginality, taking on a protracted long-term character, testifies to the crisis state of society.
The structure of Russian society in the XXI century. has changed significantly. Instead of the Soviet three-member system (working class, peasantry, intelligentsia), several real numerous strata of the population, new strata, appeared, primarily as a result of the economic reforms of the 1990s. In the course of their holding, the branches of the military-industrial complex "sank" and the financial sector and the private sector grew rapidly. The criterion of property and income has acquired a decisive role. Social subjects have been formed that correspond in their professional and personal qualities to the requirements of a market economy. According to T. I. Zaslavskaya, the structure of modern Russian society includes five main social strata: elite, upper, middle, base layer and social bottom (underclass). At the same time, the structure of the working population at the beginning of January 1997 in percentage terms looked as follows: the share of elites was no more than 1%; top layer - 5-6%; medium - 66%; lower - 10%. The percentage of representatives of the social bottom was not determined, since this category of citizens, according to T. Zaslavskaya, should hardly be included in the working population.
Among Russian citizens there is a great desire to be no worse than others, even if there is no sufficient grounds. Therefore, to the question: "What social class do you belong to?", 55% answered - to the middle. Whereas in reality it is only 25-30%.
A feature of the social structure of a perfect Russian society is that it has a large social stratum (approximately 25-30%), whose representatives have many of the main features of the middle class. These are doctors, teachers, university professors, lawyers, engineers and technicians, scientists and cultural workers, small entrepreneurs who have sufficient social activity and are aged 25 to 50 years. In any developed country, these social groups occupy the position of the middle class. However, in Russia for various reasons, this category of citizens has a very low material incomes and cannot self-actualize as the middle class.
According to the Institute for Comprehensive Social Research, in 2008 46.9% of Russians considered themselves to be among the strata that lost as a result of the reforms and failed to adapt to the new conditions. These people can conditionally be classified as marginalized. A third of the respondents remained with their own, and only 6.8% considered themselves winners.
The income gap between the richest 10% of Russian citizens and the poorest 10% (decile coefficient) is approximately 30-40, i.e. the richest are 30-40 times richer than the poor. For comparison, in the USSR, the decile coefficient in different periods fluctuated between 5-7. Poor Russia in 2008 ranked fourth in the world in terms of the number of dollar billionaires.
As you can see, the model of stratification (structure) of Russian society in terms of living standards has already been formed and has taken stable forms.
Within this model two lower strata(1st and 2nd) unite about 20% of Russians. These are people who, according to their real standard of living, are below the poverty line, and according to the indicators of the standard of living index, they are characterized by minus values, which clearly indicate deprivation. It is no coincidence that 61% of the group that rated their ability to meet the three basic needs (food, clothing, and housing) as poor belonged to these strata, and another quarter - to the 3rd stratum, which unites Russians teetering on the brink of poverty, and then slipping over this line, then slightly rising above it. Those today are 14%. Unfortunately, a new class of the poor has formed in Russia, rolling into the underclass (lumpen and outcasts), but the worst thing is that young people from this class have no chance of breaking out of the lower class.
Fourth social structure corresponds to the level low-income. It is this standard of living is also the median(middle), and modal(i.e. most typical) in today's Russia what its representatives themselves feel. Among them, the assessment of their social status as satisfactory dominates (73% in 2006), while the rest are almost equally divided into those who assess it as good and bad. The standard of living of this most massive stratum of Russian society, uniting a quarter of all Russians, also sets consumption standard, which is perceived by the Russians as the minimum acceptable living wage, forcing you to live. As the majority of Russians slide from poverty to poverty in the next 5-10 years, the median class will be divided into a more prosperous part, which will merge into the lower middle class, and a less prosperous part (pensioners, low-skilled workers), which will replenish the lower class.
Social structures from the 5th to the 8th- it middle layers, whose well-being has significant differences among themselves, but which in any case can be considered as relatively prosperous against the all-Russian background ( 35% of Russian society).
9th-10th strata unite those who, from the point of view of the overwhelming majority of Russians, can be considered rich. Their hallmark is the feeling of being the masters of their own lives. Those are 5-7%.
Numerically, these classes of society are represented in it as follows (Table 1):
To the above European structure, descending into Russian reality, it is necessary to add some social strata: engineering and technical workers, humanitarian intelligentsia, military personnel, prisoners, refugees, etc.
Defining the main layers of modern Russian society, to middle strata we carried lower middle class, covering the 5th and 6th strata and proper middle class- strata 7-8 (12% of the society). It is his standard of living that is perceived by the majority of the Russian population as a kind of average standard of normal life. At the same time, there has been a tendency for the 5th stratum of the lower middle class to slide towards the median class (4th social structure) and the movement of a third of the representatives of the 6th stratum up to the 7th stratum. The gap between the 6th and 7th social structures will shrink, and the 6th social structure will enter the 7th. Due to which the middle class will be approximately 15% of the population.
Sociological studies in 2006 showed that all three objects of property (an apartment, a car, a dacha) are owned by 10% of the representatives of the 5th stratum, 23% - by the 6th and 30% - by the 7th stratum. There is not a single criterion for 4% of the 5th stratum and 1% for the 6th. A similar picture is observed in other aspects of life (promotion, education, income, starting one's own business, etc.). Even more convincing are the differences in the standard of living of the representatives of the lower middle class (5th and 6th strata) and the middle class proper (7th and 8th strata). The latter were more active, enterprising, wealthy, achieved more in life: they purchased expensive goods, used paid educational and medical services, and are optimistic about the future of their children.
In the struggle to raise incomes, the middle classes are increasingly concentrated in the public sector (58% of their representatives), given that work in the public sector provides a much greater degree of social protection, while at the same time making it possible to receive relatively high incomes for Russia. This allows us to assert that representatives of the middle classes today occupy the most attractive production positions. Among them, the share of state administration employees is growing, and the share of agricultural workers is falling.
It should be added to this that representatives of the middle classes were better able to “earn” additional income by working part-time or retraining if necessary. They improved their financial situation more actively using bank loans and other financial operations, economic rationality, allowing them to plan their resources and receive maximum dividends from their own activity. Being at the junction fundamentally different classes poor and rich, the middle classes perform an important integrating function in the structure of society.
In this way, about a third of Russians are either below the poverty line, or on this line with a risk at the slightest deterioration in the macroeconomic situation or some family problems final slide into poverty. About a quarter are in a state of low income. Approximately a third of the population can, although with some degree of conventionality, be considered Russian analogue of the middle class. And finally top 5-7% are those whom the Russians themselves consider rich.
Moreover, the level of material security of representatives of various strata most often corresponds to other indicators of their social status: the amount of power, the level of education and qualifications, the characteristics of production positions, prestige, worldview, lifestyle, social circle.
We summarize the results obtained by considering middle classes in the structure of Russian society. First, in terms of their economic position, both middle classes differ from lower classes in that they have a certain economic resource(in the form of property or various kinds of savings and investments), as well as enough funds for the appearance on a massive scale of style differences in consumption. Moreover, starting from these classes, the tendency of degradation of their property and personal potential, which characterizes the situation of other classes, ceases to be fixed. V unlike the poor and the median class, they managed to use those new opportunities provided by the transition to a market economy. Moreover, the features of the strategies they use to improve their financial situation, as well as the features of their economic consciousness and behavior as a whole, qualitatively differ from the situation in the two lower classes and give reason to assume that these differences will grow rather quickly.
However, at the same time the lower middle and middle classes are markedly different how volume they have economic resources, and the possibilities of style spending. Moreover, they also differ in the dynamics of their well-being. These differences are especially evident in the situation in the lower middle class, where, despite the similarity in many parameters of the current situation in its 5th and 6th strata, there are discrepancies between them in the trends in changing their position. This allows us to assume not so much a rapprochement between the lower middle and middle classes in the future, but a further deepening of the differences between the various strata of the lower middle class, as a result of which, apparently, the 6th social structure will largely become part of the middle class itself, which will expand. with a favorable development of events, up to about 15% of the population. The rest will join the lower middle class, which will also expand, incorporating some of the representatives of the 6th stratum, the 5th stratum and part of the median class.
In general, it must be said that when working with data characterizing the life of various strata in the structure of Russian society, identified on a scale of "poverty - wealth", one cannot but be amazed at the energy with which people resist extremely unfavorable circumstances for them, that, without exaggeration, titanic struggle for life and the right to a future that year after year lead tens of millions of our fellow citizens. They lead in the most difficult conditions, sometimes with the last of their strength, but still resisting the threat of ending up in a pool of ever deeper sucking poverty and degradation. And it is no coincidence that the fear of a worsening financial situation turns out to be the main fear not only of the lower, but also of the middle classes - the point here is not the impossibility in this case to buy an extra thing or go to the cinema once again. The problem is much deeper. Apparently, even the relatively prosperous citizens of our country still feel, although, perhaps, not always realize, which is behind some line very close to the vast majority of them starts at first smooth, and then accelerating slipping into the abyss of poverty and poverty, from which it is almost impossible to escape.
Taking into account the analysis and other materials, the above allows us to draw the following conclusions:
1. By 2000, in Russia, mostly formed qualitatively new, extremely polarized socially -class structure with poles as bourgeoisie on the one hand, and semi-declassed employees, on the other, at very subtle and unstable middle class, which would be more accurately called the middle social stratum.
2. deepest, which has no analogue in modern industrial countries the stratification of society according to property well-being took on a character. Basically, the state system of social protection of Russians has been destroyed and turned into scattered fragments of private charity and departmental assistance, which created all the prerequisites for the lumpenization of the masses of the country's population.
3. Polarization is not limited to social-mass and property sections of society, but in a number of areas it has passed through a system of relations: authorities - the masses, the power structures of the Center - the power structures of the regions, the city - the village, the ethnic group - the ethnic groups, etc. The stratification also takes place within the bourgeois class(national bourgeoisie - comprador bourgeoisie), employees(in connection with one or another form of ownership) and, moreover, splits society into a law-abiding part and a rapidly growing criminal community; on relatively prosperous, with housing and work, and on intensively multiplying socially disadvantaged. Because of this, the antagonization of Russian society has taken on a character and is fraught with either its explosive or creepingly quiet disorganization.
Grade 10
1 - option.
1.
| TYPE OF COMPANY | CHARACTERISTIC |
| ... | Mas-co-pro-from-water-stvo of that-va-ditch, av-to-ma-ti-for-tion and special-ci-a-li-for-tion of production from-water. |
| informational | The development and mass-co-use of computer-pyu-ter-tech-no-logies. |
2.
1) technical progress; 2) social progress; 3) social reform; 4) Neolithic revolution; 5) modernization.
3. Below is a list of terms. All but two are social sciences.
1) sociology; 2) economics; 3) political science; 4) ethnography; 5) cultural studies;
6) literary criticism.
Find two terms that “fall out” of the general series, and write down the numbers under which they are indicated in response.
4. Choose the correct judgments about society and its types and write down the numbers under which they are indicated.
1) Society is a combination of all forms of association and ways of interaction between people, in which their interdependence is expressed.
2) The main factor of production of an industrial society is land.
3) All spheres of public life, social institutions are subject to change.
4) The systemic nature of society is manifested in the presence of social communities and groups connected by social relations.
5) Society is a closed system that does not interact with the external environment.
5.
| CHARACTERISTIC | GLOBAL PROBLEMS |
| A) gradual depletion of oil and metals reserves; B) intensifying the activities of extremist groups (taking hostages, preparing and carrying out explosions in crowded places); C) rapid population growth in Asia, Africa and Latin America; D) an increase in the gap in the level of gross national income per capita between groups of countries; D) the growth of diseases caused by hazardous waste products. | 1) the threat of global terrorism 2) the threat of an ecological crisis 3) the problem of "North - South" |
6. The student is working on the re-fe-ra-tom “Society of tra-di-qi-on-no-th type”. What features of the societies from the list below can he consider in his work? (For-pi-shi-those numbers, under someone-ry-mi these especially-ben-no-sti-for-us).
4) So-qi-al-naya structure-tu-ra co-words-but cor-po-ra-tiv-on, stable-on.
5) Pre-ob-la-da-et ex-ten-siv-naya tech-no-logia.
7. Read the text below with a number of words missing.
Choose from the proposed list of words that you want to insert in place of the gaps.
« ___________ (A) modern scientists call the process of formation of a single humanity. There is an active development of the world economy and the world system ___________ (B), common ideas about the optimal socio-political structure are being introduced, ___________ (C) is spreading. Globalization is ___________(D) a process that has both positive and negative impact on the development of modern humanity. On the one hand, the formation of ___________ (D) society is taking place, on the other hand, the economic disagreements between Western countries and the countries of the "third world" are aggravating, the problem of ___________ (E) is aggravating"
The words in the list are given in the nominative case. Each word can only be used once. Choose sequentially one word after another, mentally filling in each gap. Please note that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.
List of terms:
1) dialogue of cultures 2) division of labor 3) society
4) globalization 5) contradictory 6) mass culture
7) Agriculture 8) information 9) computer
In the so-qi-al-noy si-ste-me, it’s not-interrupted-but pro-is-ho-dyat pro-processes, some can lead to how to arise but-to-ve-ing of new elements, and to the disappearance of-no-ve-of previously existing elements and from-but-she-nii. We are talking about pro-ble-me so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny.
There are two main forms of so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny: evolution and re-in-lu-tion. Equally-weight-noy mo-de-lyu so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny yav-la-et-xia evolution-lu-tion. Another sociologist G. Spencer defined evolution as a step-by-step process of the emergence of more and more complex so-ci-al- ny forms.
Not-equal-but-weight-noy mo-de-lyu so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny you-stu-pa-et re-vo-lu-tion. So-qi-al-naya re-vo-lu-tion is such a way of re-re-ho-yes to a new quality, with some kind of so-qi-al -naya si-ste-ma oka-zy-va-et-sya in an unstable-chi-so-sto-i-nii: pro-is-ho-dit her de-sta-bi-li-for- tion, na-ru-sha-et-sya balance of so-qi-al forces.<...>
So-ci-al-ny progress follows in the least as one of the forms of development of society, based on such non-ob-ra- ty-my-of-me-not-no-yah in it, in re-zul-ta-those of some-things-of-things-la-is-sya-re-move to more you-with-to- mu-level-nu ma-te-ri-al-no-go bla-go-so-hundred-i-niya and spirit-hov-no-go development of personal-no-sti.
Pro-gress as an understanding can be applied both to the system as a whole, and to its individual elements. From-but-she-nie to re-zul-ta-tam so-tsi-al-no-go progress-sa in science yes-le-ko is not one-but-meaning-but. Some scientists believe that hopes for limitless progress did not materialize, that social changes from me are more complicated us and pro-ty-in-re-chi-you, types and rates of their different. Possibility of a stagnant, fifth-development of society, movement in a circle. However, the concept of “pro-gress” is still used with ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ke of so-qi-al-nyh from me- no-ny.
To determine the level of pro-gres-siv-no-sti of this or that society, tra-di-qi-on-but used two cr-te -ria: the level of pro-of-di-tel-no-sti of labor and the degree of freedom of the individual in society. The more pro-gres-siv-but the society, the more you-with-ki these kri-te-rii. In modern so-ci-al-science, both of these criteria are subject to ver-ga-yut-xia with me in connection with me-no-no-e ha -cancer-te-ra of labor (labor becomes more and more in-tel-lek-tu-al-nym, which means that it is difficult to accounting) and complicate-no-no-eat so-qi-al-no-go in-ve-de-niya che-lo-ve-ka (fe-no-men "escape from freedom" , discovered by E. From-mom). In scientific discussions about the “price of pro-gres-sa” in a degree-pen-but on-chi-na-et you-de-lyat-sya and affirm-wait-sya tre -ty kri-te-riy - the level of morality in society. In-vi-di-mo-mu, this cr-te-ri-it is de-stand, having developed and formalized, to become an integral cr-te-ri-em, from-ra-zha-yu-shchim-important tendencies from me-non-niya of public from-no-she-ni.
(A. B. Bez-bo-ro-doe, V. P. Fi-la-tov, etc.)
8. On-zo-vi-te ras-smat-ri-va-e-mye av-to-ra-mi forms of so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny and with-ve-di-te one at a time any ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ke of each of them.
9. Using the content of the text-hundred, explaining-no-those, in a way, from-no-scientists to the concept of "pro-gress" is not- one-but-meaning-but. Give-ve-di-those three explanations-not-niya.
10. Pro-il-lu-stri-rui-te with-me-ra-mi any three mentioned in the text properties of so-qi-al-no-go pro-gres-sa. To each property at-ve-di-those according to one method.
11. Opi-ra-yas on the content of the text-hundred and knowledge of the society-of-the-vedic-th-course, with-ve-di-those three confirmations the fact that the level of morality is y-la-et-xia in-te-gra-ny kri-te-ri-em of pro-gres-sa.
Control work on the topic: "Society".
Grade 10
Option 2.
1. For-pi-shi-te word, passed in the table.
IS-TO-RI-CHE-SKY TYPES OF SOCIETY
| TYPE OF COMPANY | CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF PRODUCTION |
| ... | Pre-ob-la-yes-et ag-rar-noe pro-from-water-stvo, a significant role is played by rural communities |
| In-doo-stri-al-noe | Society from-whether-cha-et-sya you-with-kim level of so-qi-al-noy di-na-mi-ki, pre-ob-la-da-yut in-di- vi-doo-a-li-sti-che-price-no-sti |
2. Find a concept that generalizes to all the other concepts of the series below, and write down the number under which it is indicated.
1) reform, 2) revolution, 3) social dynamics, 4) evolution, 5) social regression.
3. Below is a re-re-chen ter-mi-nov. All of them, with the exception of two, are connected with the term “pro-gress”.
1) so-qi-al-naya re-form-ma; 2) mo-der-no-for-tion; 3) stagnation; 4) growth in the length of life; 5) pa-de-tion of the level of ob-ra-zo-va-nia; 6) an increase in the level of b-go-so-hundred-i-niya on-se-le-niya.
Find-di-those two ter-mi-on, “you-pa-da-yu-shchih” from the general row, and write-write-shi-te in response to the numbers, under someone-ry- we they point-for-us.
4. You-be-ri-those true judgments about society and write down those numbers, under someone they are indicated.
1) Society is a part of nature.
2) In-ro-yes, half-no-stu define-de-la-et development of society.
3) Co-time-men-no-mu-society-property-but-word structure.
4) The combination of all peoples, on-se-lya-yu-shchih our plane, represents a society.
5) Society can be called a certain stage of the is-to-ri-che-th development of man-lo-ve-che-stva.
5. Establish a correspondence between examples of manifestations and characteristics of global problems: for each position given in the first column, select the corresponding position from the second column.
| CHARACTERISTIC | GLOBAL PROBLEMS |
| A) Large-scale headquarters you-needed mi-gra-tion from developing countries to developing countries. B) Global-noe from-me-non-cli-ma-ta. C) you-so-ci-level of con-cen-tra-tion of the mass-so-how of poverty and poverty in countries Tro-pi-che-sky Af-ri-ki. D) The reduction of the bi-o-raz-but-ob-ra-zia of the Earth. E) Olimit-no-chen-ness of natural for-pa-owls of coal-le-in-to-rod-no-th raw material. | 1) eco-lo-gi-che-pro-ble-we 2) pro-ble-ma "North-South" 3) energy-ge-ti-che-sky pro-ble-ma |
6 .Stu-dent ra-bo-ta-et on the re-fe-ra-tom “From-li-chi-tel-nye features of in-du-stri-al-no-go-society”. What features of the societies from the list below can he consider in his work? (For-pi-shi-those numbers, under some-ry-mi these especially-ben-no-sti-for-us.)
1) Eco-no-mi-ka ha-rak-te-ri-zu-et-sya govern- ment of agriculture and p-mi-tiv-no-go re-mes -la.
2) In the realm of the state, the church and the army govern.
3) The eco-no-mi-che-base of the society is a-la-et-sya industry.
4) So-tsi-al-naya structure is yav-la-et-sya co-words-but cor-po-ra-tiv-noy, stable.
5) Pre-ob-la-yes-et in-ten-siv-naya tech-no-logia.
6) In public from-no-she-no-yah, law and law govern.
7. Pro-chi-tay-te the text below, in some way a number of words are missing. You-be-ri-those from the pre-la-ga-e-mo-th list of words, some-rye not-about-ho-di-mo put in place of the passes.
“So-ci-al-ny progress is one of the forms of ______ (A) society, associated with the transition to a higher level development of ma-te-ri-al-noy and spiritual culture.
Progress as an understanding can be applied both to _____ (B) as a whole, and to its individual elements. From-no-she-research-to-va-te-lei to ________ (B) so-qi-al-no-go progress-sa not-one-but-meaning-but. In a number of cases, pro-is-ho-dit is a stagnant, fifth-development of society. You can also talk about ________ (G), moving in a circle.
To determine the level of pro-gres-siv-no-sti of this or that society, tra-di-qi-on-but used two ____ (D) : the level of pro-of-di-tel-no-sti of labor and the degree of freedom of the individual in society. Modern science advances another one - the level of __________ (E) in society.
The words in the list are given in the name-ni-tel-nom pas-de-zhe. Each word (word-in-co-che-ta-nie) can be used-pol-zo-va-but only once.
You-bi-rai-te after-before-va-tel-but one word after another, cape-len-but for-filling each pass. Please pay attention to the fact that there are more words in the list than you need to fill in the gaps.
Spi-juice ter-mi-nov:
1) rezul-tat 2) contemporary society 3) from-me-non-ne
4) morality 5) cyclic personality 6) re-in-lu-tion
7) so-tsi-al-naya si-ste-ma 8) po-li-ti-ka 9) kri-te-ri
Self-development of society and a person has a certain vector, which is associated with the concepts of progress and regress.
In the history of philosophy, these concepts were most often evaluated from polar positions. A number of thinkers were convinced of the existence of progress in society and saw its criterion in the growth of science and reason, in the improvement of morals. Others emphasized the subjective aspects of progress, linking it to the growth of the ideals of truth and justice. It has been argued that the very idea of progress is false...
Many associated progress mainly with the spiritual factors in the development of society, the growth of faith in every person, the humanization of interpersonal relations, and the strengthening of the position of goodness and beauty in the world.
Accordingly, the regress rose as a movement in the opposite direction, as the triumph of evil and injustice, the disunity of people and their submission to some kind of anti-human force.
In ancient times, changes in society were understood as a simple sequence of events or as a degradation compared to the past "golden age". In Christianity, for the first time, an idea appears about the non-historical goal of society and man, about the "new heaven and new earth." In the Marxist concept, social progress was associated with the steady development of the productive forces of society, the growth of labor productivity, the liberation from the yoke of the elemental forces of social development and the exploitation of man by man. The ultimate goal and criterion of progress was the evolution of man as a harmoniously developed personality. Regression was interpreted by Marxism as the movement of society in the opposite direction, the cause of which is the reactionary social and political forces.
In the XX century. with the emergence of global problems of mankind and the growth of instability in the world as a whole, the criteria for social progress begin to change. The concept of the progress of society and history is increasingly associated with the development of the bodily and spiritual characteristics of the person himself. Thus, such criteria as the level of maternal and child mortality, indicators of physical and mental health, a sense of satisfaction with life, etc. are proposed as integral characteristics of the progressive development of society and a person. No type of progress (in the economic, socio-political and other spheres of society) can be considered as leading if it does not affect the life of every person on the planet. On the other hand, the share of responsibility of each person for everything that happens in society, for the movement of history in the desired direction, is sharply increasing.
(V. Kokhanovsky)
8. Was there a unity of views of thinkers on the criteria of social progress in the history of philosophy? Explain your answer based on the text. What two factors, according to the author, have influenced the change in the criteria for progress in the modern world?
9. What three criteria, according to the author, can be integral characteristics of the progressive development of society in our time? Based on the knowledge of the course and the facts of social life, indicate any criterion not named in the text.
10. The author names such criteria of progress as the growth of science, the growth of labor productivity, the liberation from the exploitation of man by man. Illustrate each of these criteria with an example.
11. The author connects progress with various spheres of society. Do you think there is progress in the spiritual and moral sphere? Formulate your point of view and give three arguments in support of it.
KEY to the test on the topic: "Society".
Grade 10
| № tasks | 1 - option | Option 2 |
| 1 | industrial | traditional (agricultural) |
| 2 | 2 | 3 |
| 3 | 56 | 35 |
| 4 | 134 | 45 |
| 5 | 21332 | 21213 |
| 6 | 1245 | 356 |
| 7 | 426581 | 371594 |
| The right answer must contain the following element-men-you: 1) forms of so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny: evolution-lu-tion and revo- lucia; 2) brief ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ki of each form, For example: — evolution-lu-tion: “a gradual process of the emergence of more complex forms”; — re-vo-lu-tion: "not-equal-but-weight-model-del of so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny", co-leader-da-yu-shchih-sya de-sta-bi-li-for-qi-her so-qi-al-noy si-ste-we. There may be other ha-rak-te-ri-sti-ki. | 1) answer to the first question: A number of thinkers were convinced of the existence of progress in society and saw its criterion in the growth of science and reason, in the improvement of morals. Others emphasized the subjective aspects of progress, linking it to the growth of the ideals of truth and justice.; 2) the answer to the second question: the factors that influenced the change in the criteria for progress: the emergence of global problems of mankind; growing instability in the world as a whole. |
|
| There may be pri-ve-de-us following ex-cl-non-niya: 1) hopes for borderless progress did not materialize; 2) so-qi-al-nye from me-not-niya are complex and pro-ti-in-re-chi-you; 3) types and rates of so-qi-al-nyh from me-not-ny different personalities; 4) the possibility of a stagnant, fifth-degree development of society and movement in a circle; 5) kri-te-rii pro-gres-sa not-one-but-meaning-us. | The following elements can be included in the correct answer: 1) Three integral characteristics of the progressive development of society: - the level of maternal and child mortality; - indicators of physical and mental health; - feeling of satisfaction with life. (The reasons may be given in other wordings that are close in meaning.) 2) own criterion, for example: morality (humanistic criterion). There may be another reason |
|
| The right answer must containproperties of so-qi-al-no-go pro-gres-sa and co-from-vet-stu-u-schie-measures, to-pu-stim: 1) re-move to a higher level of development (for example, from ag-rar-no-go to in-du-stri-al-no- mu society); 2) apply both to the whole society and to its individual elements (for example, ak-ti-vi-za-tion peasant- pre-pri-ni-ma-te-lei in cre-post-ni-che-Russian Russia of the 18th century); 3) pro-ti-vo-re-chi-vost re-zul-ta-tov (one of the results of pro-ry-va in the field of nuclear phy-zi-ki was creation of an atomic bomb); 4) different rates and types of different elements of the system (for example, in Russia on-cha-la XX century eco-no-mi-ka city-ro-dov active-tiv-but once-vi-va-las, pro-is-ho-di-la mo-but-po-li-za-tion, and de-roar-nya remained-va-las-lo-fe-o-dal-noy) | The correct answer must contain the following elements: 1) the growth of science (before the invention of computers, calculations were carried out mainly by hand); 2) the growth of labor productivity (modern industrial technologies provide the possibility of producing more units of output with less use of labor of workers); 3) liberation from the exploitation of man by man (Russia abolished serfdom in 1861). |
|
| There may be pre-ve-de-us, for example, such confirmation : 1) mo-ral “oche-lo-ve-chi-va-et” che-lo-ve-ka, dis-roof-va-et his spirit in ten-ci-al; 2) in the mo-ral-nom you-bo-re the most-bo-lea is full of pro-yav-la-et-svo-bo-yes che-lo-ve-ka; 3) only a person with you-with-a-moral culture-tu-swarm will be able to give those-no-che-so-mu pro-gres-su gu-ma-ni- sti-che-character, mi-ni-mi-zi-ro-vat times-ru-shi-tel-nye for human-lo-ve-ka re-zul-ta-you tech-ni- th-th | 1) Own point of view: Progress in the spiritual realm is taking place. The following arguments can be given: - progress in the spiritual sphere is manifested in the rejection of harsh customs (the custom of blood feud); - progress in the spiritual sphere is manifested in the spread of secondary education for all; - progress in the spiritual sphere is manifested in the availability of scientific knowledge to the general public. Other explanations may be given. Arguments can also be given to justify the opposite position: there is no progress in the spiritual realm. |
In the previous topic, society was seen as a system. However, each system is not only a collection of elements, but also a certain way of their interaction and organization. Such a certain order of communication between the elements of the system was named structures. Elements of social structure can be social statuses, roles, groups and communities. However, any social structure is characterized primarily by inequality positions occupied by its elements.
social structure acts as one of the most important aspects of sociological theory and is considered as the main theoretical and methodological foundation in the study of society, its functioning, development and decay. Without knowledge of the social structure, it is impossible to understand either society, or its development, or the position of a particular person in society.
To describe and analyze the system of inequality in a particular society, the concept of “social structure” is widely used in sociology today. If the “structure of society” includes such components that sometimes do not include people, then the concept of “social structure” means exactly the system of social stratification of society into hierarchically ranked groups with unequal statuses. The social structure speaks not just about the different position in society of individuals and groups, but precisely about their unequal position relative to each other. Consequently, the concept of social structure focuses on the allocation of precisely hierarchically formed groups. In this way, SOCIAL STRUCTURE– it is a set of vertically arranged social groups and strata with an unequal distribution of social benefits, the results of social labor. The most important distinguishing feature of the social structure is that it is identical to the system (emergent) properties complex its constituent elements, but by no means the properties of its individual elements.
Any social structure has several common features, the most significant of which are as follows:
1) in the process of social structuring, people are differentiated into higher and lower layers, strata, classes;
2) stratification divides people into a privileged minority (the nobility, the rich) and the majority disadvantaged in any way (poor, without access to power, etc.);
3) social inequality leads to the emergence of the lower and disadvantaged strata of the desire to move into better-off, privileged strata, which inevitably gives rise not only to careerism, but also to social contradictions and conflicts.
Since the way of organizing inequality and its criteria (reasons) can be different, it is necessary to single out in history and analyze the various types of social structure encountered in the course of social development. Type of social structure – it is a historically determined character of the organization of social stratification and a way of its affirmation and reproduction in their unity . The English sociologist E. Giddens identifies five main types of social structure: slave, caste, estate, class and modern (stratification).
Each type of social structure presupposes its own specific way of determining and reproducing social inequality. In fact, any particular society consists of some combination of different types of social structures and many transitional forms. We will now try to analyze the types of social structure as ideal types, i.e. in its purest form, without specific historical specifics.
There are five main types in total.
I. Slavery (slaveholding structure) - it is a system of social stratification based on direct violence and the property of man on man .
signs slaveholding structure:
· Inequality is determined by two interrelated criteria: a) the existence of civil rights and b) the right of ownership of a person;
· the lower stratum (slaves) is deprived of all rights, including the right to be a man: a slave is a “talking instrument”;
The status of a slave could be inherited (but not necessarily);
· a high level of polarization of the population: the entire social structure was reduced practically to the confrontation between slaves and slave owners;
· the unstable and confrontational nature of the social structure;
· exclusively non-economic, i.e. forceful and military-legal coercion to work; That's why
Extremely low labor productivity. The slave is completely devoid of positive incentives to work and works only under duress, and hence -
Virtually no technical progress.
Types of slavery:
1. patriarchal slavery - characteristic of societies at the pre-state stage of development, has a family character;
2. traditional (ancient) slavery - through conquest;
3. servility in Kievan Rus is debt, bonded slavery;
4. plantation slavery (existed in the south of the United States until the civil war of 1861 - 1865) - on a racial basis.
II. caste structure – it a system of social stratification based on ethno-tribal differences, which were reinforced by the division of labor and supported by religious rituals and group cultural and moral norms .
Each caste is the most closed (endogamous) group with a clearly localized place in the social hierarchy. This place appeared as a result of the separation of functions in the system of division of labor and was hereditarily assigned to all representatives of a given tribe, ethnic group.
Signs of caste structure:
ü isolation of castes, their absolute closeness: a person is almost completely deprived of the opportunity to move from one caste to another;
ü caste status is lifelong and hereditary, it is inherited;
ü social career only within the framework of one's caste;
ü Strict regulation of the behavior of any person by caste norms.
There were castes in India and Africa. The clan system characteristic of the states of Central Asia is very reminiscent of the caste structure, only there was not such a rigid connection between the profession and ethno-tribal division. There were 4 main castes in India: Brahmins, Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (artisans and peasants), as well as more than 5 thousand minor castes.
In 1950, the caste system in India was legally abolished. But in reality, it still exists today - in the village, where 70% of the country's population lives.
III. estate structure – it a system of social stratification in which social groups are distinguished by legally fixed benefits and privileges associated with their rights and obligations to the state.
This type of social structure dominated Western Europe from the 4th to the 15th centuries, and in Russia from the 18th century. to 1917. Let's say, the upper class - the nobles did not pay taxes and carried out public service, and the peasants bore the "tax", i.e. taxes and duties.
Signs of estate structure:
ü estate status was for life and was inherited;
ü estate status did not depend on property, nationality, profession or even income;
ü inequality of social status was expressed through benefits and privileges, which were fixed legally;
ü privileges and the whole system of social inequality directly depended on the state, on the position of the individual in the state, in the power structure;
ü rigid barriers between estates, so social mobility (career) is mainly within the estates, because each estate included many ranks and levels;
ü the transition from estate to estate was, in principle, possible, but extremely rarely and individually - for special services to the state;
Inter-class marriages were allowed.
IV. class structure – this is a system of social stratification in which social groups differ in the nature and size of ownership of the means of production and the product produced, as well as in the level of income received and personal material well-being.
It was not K. Marx and F. Engels who first singled out classes, but the French bourgeois historians F. Guizot and O. Thierry. Marxism made this concept central to its social theory. However, neither K. Marx nor F. Engels has a clear definition of this category. In their interpretation of it, economic, political and philosophical aspects were often intertwined. As follows from the context of K. Marx's works, he considered the place in the system of social relations, in social production, to be the most important feature of a class, and he called the exploitation of one class by another an essential manifestation of class relations.
Signs of a class structure:
ü unlike other types of social inequality, belonging to classes is not regulated by power and religion, is not established by law and is not inherited ( transfer of property and capital, not the status itself)
ü class status is not attributed, but achieved;
ü social division is predominantly economic in nature;
ü belonging to a certain class is objective and does not depend on the opinions and assessments of people, including self-assessments;
Citizens are free politically and legally.
Note : common to caste, estate and class social structures was that attribution to a certain social stratum (social positioning) was accompanied by more or less rigid social regulation of the activities and behavior of people in a given society.
Advantages of class analysis:
1. class analysis is objective, it is largely free from subjectivism and bias;
2. the class approach is designed to analyze the social structure of society as a whole, because it allows you to study the most general and essential aspects of social relations;
3. The class approach makes it possible to identify general, strategic trends in social stratification and social processes.
Disadvantages and weaknesses of the class approach:
1. the class approach is too general and abstract for a strictly scientific and systematic study of the totality of social relations;
2. simplification of the social structure: the class approach actually reduces it to two levels - the class of owners and the class of the have-nots. Of course, such a division exists in reality, but it does not exhaust the whole variety of social connections and relations;
3. The Marxist approach confuses the division into classes (in general) and the division into classes of exploiters and exploited, because it introduces “exploitation” into the number of class-forming features (See: VI Lenin). But by no means always and everywhere can interclass relations be reduced to exploitation;
4. The class approach focuses all efforts on studying the structure of social class positions, to the detriment of analyzing the distribution of individuals in these positions. The study of social mobility in the class approach recedes into the background;
5. the class approach actually ignores other real grounds (criteria) for social division and inequality;
6. Due to its abstractness and simplification, the class approach is poorly suited for studying and explaining many specific political events and processes: wars, rebellions, unrest, changes of dynasties and coup d'état.
To solve all these problems of social analysis, M. Weber expanded the number of criteria that determine belonging to a particular social group. To designate a complex system of social inequality, Weber introduces the concept of "social stratification". Later P.A. Sorokin significantly improved and systematized the theory of social stratification. And today this approach is the main one in the analysis of the social structure of modern society.
v. social stratification – it a system of social hierarchical stratification of social groups on the basis of property, power and prestige .
Social stratification means not just a different position in society of individual individuals and groups, but precisely an unequal position relative to each other, which makes it possible to single out hierarchically organized groups, i.e. higher and lower strata. At the same time, if classes are distinguished by their relation to the means of production and by ways of access to social benefits, then strata are distinguished by the social distribution of the results of labor - social benefits.
Signs of a socio-stratification structure:
It is a multidimensional system based on several heterogeneous signs of social differentiation. There are actually 5 criteria used here:
1. income level;
2. attitude to property;
3. social prestige;
4. level of qualification and education;
5. attitude to power;
ü objective factors (level of income, property) are combined among the stratification criteria; subjective-evaluative factors - prestige ;
ü Among all the grounds for stratification, social prestige plays a key role. This is determined by two circumstances: a) the integral nature of this criterion; b) the most important role in social life is played by normative-value regulation. Therefore, only those people whose status corresponds to mass ideas about social significance rise to the upper levels of the social ladder;
ü stratification status is not hereditary and hereditary, it is not fixed for life;
ü stratification status (as well as class status) is not attributed, but achieved;
ü strata are not closed social groups;
ü stratification status does not depend on national-ethnic, confessional and demographic affiliation;
ü in the stratification system, inequality between statuses can be measured quantitatively:
1. income it is measured in monetary units of a given society, which an individual (or family) receives for a certain period of time, most often for a year;
2. qualification and education measured by the number of years of study at school, university, various courses, etc.;
4. power measured by the number of people affected by the decision you make.
Social stratification arises not only under the influence of property relations, but also as a result of the social division of labor, the nature of the functions performed and the uneven distribution of social rewards and incentives, the dominant system of values and cultural standards in society that determine the significance of a particular activity and legitimize social inequality. This point of view was most profoundly developed in the functional theory created in the early 1940s. 20th century American sociologists T. Parsons, R. Merton, D. Davis, W. Moore and others.
Social stratification is the result of not only objective social inequality, social differentiation, but also social assessment. Moreover, the very mechanism of this evaluation is connected with the prevailing system of values and cultural standards in society. On the basis of the historically established system of value ideas in society and the assessment of the significance of the functions performed by individuals, various social groups are ranked according to social prestige. Prestige – it the assessment that society gives to a status or position . Prestige, as it were, is built into the social position, into the status: by occupying it, the individual, together with him, receives the prestige corresponding to this status.
In society, social stratification acts as a special way of redistributing social energy and cultural capital, it performs the most important functions of organizing and coordinating various types of social activity and interaction between people. Thanks to all this, the stratification structure serves as a powerful adaptive mechanism that helps society successfully adapt to dynamically changing conditions (external and internal) at each new round of development. At the same time, this structure itself has certain prerequisites and patterns of its internal transformation, which must be taken into account in the course of sociological analysis.
Estates are groups formed in society, endowed with rights and obligations prescribed by law and inherited. The class structure of society implies that a person depends on his belonging to a particular class. This dependence provides for a certain range of duties, communication, norms of behavior and even clothing. At the same time, a transition in the vertical direction is impossible: a person is born and dies in the same rank belonging to his ancestors. The same title is passed on to future generations.
The class structure of society in Russia began to take shape in the 16th century. The process took place in parallel with the concentration of land around Moscow.
Attention should also be paid to what type of society is characterized by the class structure of society. The type of the latter, in this case, belongs to the traditional ones, that is, those that are based on traditional values. It is in such a society that stable groups of people or estates are formed.
The class structure of society included the privileged estates and the dependent. The first of these should include the servicemen and the clergy. All the rest were dependent.
Let us consider in more detail which estates existed in former times, and how they differed from each other.
Under the servants were understood all who served the state. They were divided into two groups:
The class of servicemen "in the fatherland" had many gradations inside. It was divided into:
Duma ranks made up the Boyar Duma. The ranks of Moscow were called "neighbors", their names indicated the duties of their owners. The sleeping bags undress the king, the stewards serve the royal feasts, the lawyers hold the scepter, the tenants go with parcels. Moscow nobles received estates under Ivan the Terrible, they were obliged to fulfill royal orders.
Service city ranks are the provincial nobility. The elected nobles carried the burden military service. were also employed in public service.
Any free person could fall into the category of servicemen "according to the instrument". They were archers. A special unit was made up of gunners and miners. Reiters, dragoons, border Cossacks also belonged to this estate. The servants "according to the instrument" were granted land ownership, however, in a collective manner.
The estate of the clergy was divided into black (monasticism) and white (its representatives could have a family). The whole estate numbered about a million people.
The Russian Church became autocephalous, that is, independent of others. Job was its first patriarch. His choice belonged to the church council, but in fact the candidacy was determined by the king.
In the 17th century in Russian Orthodox Church There were 12 bishops. Bishops were chosen by lot. They had their own courts, servants, archers. Bishops paid an annuity, the size of which was determined by the wealth of the parish. The Novgorod diocese was considered the most secure at that time.
In the described time period, there were about 500 monasteries in Russia. Some of them were known for miraculous icons and ascetics. These include the Trinity-Sergiev, Chudov, Sergiev, Novodevichy. Often they played a political role, turning into centers of opposition to foreign invaders. Thanks to large land holdings, many monasteries became economic centers.
If we consider the class structure of society in the 17th century, then the following groups stood out among the white clergy:
So, we have considered the privileged groups of people in the class structure of society. The traditional society of that time also included a dependent population.
Speaking about the class structure of Russian society, one should name a group of townspeople. This category was divided as follows:
The first group was the merchant elite. This group included various merchants who were granted the title of "guest" by the king. These people had various privileges, they could freely travel outside the Muscovite state, acquire estates. But in addition to privileges, there were also responsibilities. The guests were supposed to be kissers, appraisers, they bought materials for state needs.
Posad people paid "the sovereign's tax" and many other taxes, called tax. And the population itself was called draft. It was divided into black hundreds and white settlements. The former included ordinary townspeople engaged in crafts, trade, crafts.
And they settled in cities, their occupations were the same as those of the Black Hundreds, but they were feudally dependent on their owner, who was paid taxes. The townspeople staged serious unrest because of their plight, so in 1649 the white settlements were liquidated.
By property, the townspeople were divided into the best, middle and young.
Among historians, there are two theories about the enslavement of the peasants. The first, indicative, says that enslavement began after the decree of Fyodor Ioannovich. The unruly theory claims that there was no such decree, and the process of enslaving the peasants took place gradually due to debt bondage. Supporters of both theories are still arguing, and there has not been a consensus on this issue.
Gradually servility and peasants merged, turning into one class group.
This is the most diverse category of people in the composition of the class structure of society. They were also called freemen. This group went beyond class boundaries, and people from any stratum could get into it. The walking people did not have their allotments. Some of them went to hard people to work. Such workers were called neighbors, neighbors, backbones. Others had no specific occupation or place of residence. The state fought against this category of the population, since free people took part in the riots.
So, we examined the class social structure of society in Russia in the 17th century and characterized all the classes that existed at that time.
